LEARNING ENGAGEMENT SCALE (LES): DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPOSITE MEASURE AND ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES FOR BUSINESS SCHOOLS

  • Dr. Atif Hassan
  • Dr. Rizwana Bashir
  • Ms. Tooba Arshad
Keywords: Learning Engagement Scale, SEM, Psychometrics, Business Schools Pakistan

Abstract

Current measures of Learning Engagement do not adequately capture overall perceptions of engagement of various stakeholders in the environment of business schools. A classified structure is proposed to capture dimensions important to business schools and learning engagement literatures. Learning engagement Scale (LES) is a composite construct that signifies the inclination of various stakeholders of the learning environment including students, teachers, Alumni, parents and industry. This study has adapted major portion of the scale from reliable international sources and also created a part of the LES through scientific methods. In this study, psychometric properties of the LES were examined on the data obtained from 498 respondents. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used for Psychometric analyses with reliability and validity estimations of the selected sample. Results showed notable convergent validity, factorial validity and internal consistency reliability, of the LES for business school samples.

Author Biographies

Dr. Atif Hassan

Professor, School of Business, Beaconhouse National University

Dr. Rizwana Bashir

Department of Management Sciences, Lahore Garrison University

Ms. Tooba Arshad

Lecturer, The University of Punjab, Jehlum Campus

References

Ab-Rashid, R., Rahman, M. F. A., & Abdul Rahman, S. B. (2016). Teachers’ engagement in social support process on a networking site. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 1(1), 34−45.

Adekola, B. (2010). Work engagement among secondary school English teachers in Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 7(2), 51−55.

Alves, H., Mainardes E., & Raposo, M. (2010). A relationship approach to higher education institutions stakeholder management. Tertiary Education and Management, 16(3), 159–181.

Anderson, J.C. & Gerbing, D.W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411–423.

Apprey, M., Preston-Grimes, P., Bassett, K. C., Lewis, D. W., & Rideau, R. M. (2014). From crisis management to academic achievement: A university cluster-mentoring model for Black undergraduates. Peabody Journal of Education, 89(3), 318–335.

Arbuckle, J.L. (2011). IBM SPSS Amos 20 user’s guide. Chicago, IL: Amos Development Corporation. Australian Collaborative Education Network. (2016). WIL industry engagement survey. Retrieved from http://acen.edu.au/wil-impact/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/WIL-industry-engagement-survey.pdf.

Ariffin, T. F. T., & Hashim, R. A. (2010). Teachers’ engagement in workplace learning activities: Validation of a measure. International Journal of Management Studies, 17(2), 105–120.

Arshad, M., Shahzadi, E., & Mahmood, A. (2016). Parents involvement at university level education: students perception in under developing country. European Scientific Journal, 12(22), 294−304.

Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25, 297.

Barkley, E. F. (2010). Student engagement techniques: A handbook for college faculty. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA. Bowen, S. (2005). Engaged learning: Are we all on the same page? Peer Review, 4-7.

Bashir, R., Hassan, A., Pasha, M. A., & Ahmed, S. (2013). Analysis of internal & external factors affecting choice of business schools by students. IBT Journal of Business Studies (JBS), 9(2).

Becket, N. & Brookes, M. (2006). Evaluating quality management in university departments. Quality Assurance in Education, 14(2), 123–142.

Byrne, B.M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

Calabrese Barton, A., Drake, C., Perez, J. G., St. Louis, K., & George, M. (2004). Ecologies of parental engagement in urban education. Educational Researcher, 33(4), 3–12. Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991).

Carreon, G. P., Drake, C., & Calabrese Barton, A. (2005). The importance of presence: Im- ´migrant parents’ school engagement experiences. American Educational Research Journal, 42(3), 465–498.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press. DeCarlo, L.T. (1997). On the meaning and use of kurtosis. Psychological Methods, 2, 292–307.

Clotfelter, C. T. (2003). Alumni giving to elite private colleges and universities. Economics of Education Review, 22, 109−120.

Competence, autonomy and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology: Vol. 23. Self-processes in development (pp. 43-77).

Connell, J. P. & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self-processes in development: Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 23, pp-43-77).

Daniel-White, K. (2002). Reassessing parent involvement: Involving language minority parents in school work at home. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 18(1), 29–49.

Davydchenkov, V. & Latsis, O. (1967). Order for management (zakaz NA upravlenie). Retrieved from
Day, C., Kington, A., Stobart, G. and Sammons, P. (2006). The personal and professional selves of teachers: Stable and unstable identities. British Educational Research Journal, 32(4), 601–616.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The ‘‘what’’ and ‘‘why’’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227−268.

Donna, B., Sue, W. (2008). Parents’ involvement in their children’s education. Family Matters, 79, 34−41. Dennis, J. M., Phinney, J. S., & Chuateco, L. I. (2005). The role of motivation, parental support, and peer support in the academic success of ethnic minority first-generation college students. Journal of College Student Development, 46 (3), 223–236.

Ellis, C. M., & Sorensen A. (2007). Assessing employee engagement: The key to improving productivity. Perspectives, 15(1).

Freeman, E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman. Freeman, R. E. & Evan, W. (1990). Corporate governance: A stakeholder interpretation. Journal of Behavioral Economics, 19(4), 337–359.

Gaier, S. (2005). Alumni satisfaction with their undergraduate experience and the impact on alumni giving and participation. International Journal of Educational Advancement, 5(4), 278–288.

Gross, K., & Godwin, P. (2005). Education’s many stakeholders. Retrieved from https://www.universitybusiness.com/article/educations-many-stakeholders

Galindo, R., & Medina, C. (2009). Cultural appropriation, performance, and agency in Mexicana parent involvement. Journal of Latinos and Education, 8(4), 312–331. doi:10.1080/15348430902973450

Green, C. L., Walker, J. M. T., Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (2007). Parents’ motivations for involvement in children’s education: An empirical test of a theoretical model of parental involvement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 532−544. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.532

Grolnick, W. S., Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994). Parents’ In Volvement In Children’s Schooling: A Multidimensional Conceptualization and Motivational Model. Wiley Online Library, 65(1), 237−252. doi:https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00747.x

Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J. & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.): Prentice Hall.

Halgunseth, L. C., Peterson, A., Stark, D. R., & Moodie, S. (2009). Family engagement, diverse families, and early childhood education programs: An integrated review of the literature. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, The Pew Charitable Trusts.

Hao, Y. (2000). Relationship between teachers’ use of reflection and other selected variables and preschool teachers’ engagement in developmentally appropriate practice (Report No. 143). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED450881.pdf

Hardesty, D. M., & Bearden, W. O. (2004). The use of expert judges in scale development: Implications for improving face validity of measures of unobservable constructs. Journal of Business Research, 57, 98−107.

Harper, S. H., & Quaye, S. H. (2009). Student engagement in higher education: Theoretical perspectives and practical approaches for diverse populations. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cziksentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.

Hobson, A. J., Malderez, A., Tracey, L., Homer, M. S., Ashby, P., Mitchell, N., McIntyre, J., Cooper, D., Roper, T., Chambers, G.N., & Tomlinson, P.D. (2009). Becoming a teacher: teachers’ experiences of initial teacher training, induction and early professional development. Final Report. Nottingham: DCSF. Retrieved from http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/11168/1/DCSF-RR115.pdf

Hoyt, J. E. (2004). Understanding alumni giving: Theory and predictors of donor status. Unpublished manuscript.

Hubbard, S., & Lopp, D. (2015). A case study reflecting successful industry engagement: Utilizing industry projects as a mechanism for discovery and stem education in aviation technology. Journal of Education and Human Development, 4(2), 175−181. doi: 10.15640/ jehd.v 4n2a21

Jang, H., Reeve, J., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Engaging students in learning activities: It is not autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 588–600. doi: 10.1037/ a0019682

Kanungo, R. N. (1982). Measurement of job and work involvement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(3), 341−349. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021- 9010.67.3.341

Kapur, D., & Crowley, M. (2008). Beyond the ABCs: Higher education and developing countries (Center for Global Development Working Paper No. 139). Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1099934

Karim, M. I. & Abd Hamid, H. S. (2016). Factor structure of the student engagement instrument among Malaysian undergraduates. Journal Psikologi Malaysia, 30(2), 1−12.

Kennedy, C. (2000). Implications for new pedagogy in higher education: Can online technology enhance student engagement & learning? (Report No. Descriptive - 141). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED443382

Kenneth, L., & Doris, J. (1998). Distributed leadership and student engagement (Report No. Meeting Papers 150). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov /?id=ED424645 Kaur, N. (2016). How not to measure alumni engagement. Retrieved from http:// higheredlive .com/how-not-to-measure-alumni-engagement/

Khalil, A. & Hassan, A. (2018). Empirical Investigation of Service Quality and Students’ Satisfaction in Higher Education. Journal of Contemporary Teacher Education, 9.

Kim, B., Jang, S., Jung, S., Lee, B., Puig, A., & Lee, S. (2014). A moderated mediation model of planned happenstance skills, career engagement, career decision self‐efficacy, and career decision certainty. The Career Development Quarterly, 62(1), 56−69.

Kinzie, J. (2009). Student engagement in higher education: Theoretical perspectives and practical approaches for diverse populations (review). Journal of College Student Development, 50(4), 471−474. doi: https://doi.org/10.1353/ csd.0.0084

Kirkpatrick, L. C. & Johnson, M. S. (2014). Ensuring the ongoing engagement of second-stage teachers. Journal of Education Change, 15, 231–252. Doi: 10.1007/s10833-014-9231-3 Kettunen, J. (2014). The stakeholder map in higher education. International Proceedings of Economics Development and Research (IPEDR), 78(7), 34−38. Doi: 10.7763/IPEDR

Kiyama, J. M. & Harper, C. (2015). Behind the hovering: How “helicopter parenting” has stalled developing inclusive models of higher education family engagement. Unpublished manuscript.

Kiyama, J. M. (2008). Funds of knowledge and college ideologies: Lived experiences among Mexican-American families (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Arizona). Retrieved from http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/ bitstream/10150/193695/1/azu _etd_2 674_ sip1_m.pdf.

Kiyama, J. M. (2010). College aspirations and limitations: The role of educational ideologies and funds of knowledge in Mexican American families. American Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 330–356.

Kiyama, J. M., Harper, C. E., Ramos, D., Aguayo, D., Page, L. A., & Riester, K. A. (2015). Parent and family engagement in higher education. ASHE Higher Education Report Banner, 41(6), 1−94. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ aehe.20024

Kline, R.B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). NewYork: The Guilford Press.

Kristic, B. (2013). Programming for college parents on a tight budget. AHEPPP Journal, 4(1), 13–26.

Kuh, G. D. (2003). What we’re learning about student engagement from NSSE: Benchmarks for effective educational practices. Change, 35(2).

Kulophas, D., Ruengtrakul, A., & Wongwanich, S. (2015). The relationships among authentic leadership, teachers’ work engagement, academic optimism and school size as moderator: A conceptual model. Rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 191, 2554 – 2558.

Lawler, E. E., & Hall, D. T. (1970). Relationship of job characteristics to job involvement, satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology 54(4), 305−312. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0029692

Li, M., Wang, Z., & Gao, J., You, X. (2017). Proactive personality and job satisfaction: The mediating effects of self-efficacy and work engagement in teachers. Current Psychology, 36(1), 48−55. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144- 015-9383-1

Loera, G., Nakamoto, J., YounJoo, O., & Rueda, R. (2013). Factors that promote motivation and academic engagement in a career technical education context. Career & Technical Education Research, 38(3), 173−190.

Lohman, M. C. (2006). Factors influencing teachers’ engagement in informal learning activities. Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(3), 141−156. doi: https:// doi.org/10.1108/1 3665620610654577

Lombardi, A. R., Murray, C., &Gerdes, H. (2012). Academic performance of first-generation college students with disabilities. Journal of College Student Development, 53(6), 811–826.

Lopez, G. R., Scribner, J. D., & Mahitivanichcha, K. (2001). Redefining parental involvement: Lessons from high-performing migrant-impacted schools. American Educational Research Journal, 38(2), 253–288.

Macey, W. H. & Schneider, B. (2008). The Meaning of Employee Engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 3−30.

Mandernach, B. J. (2015). Assessment of student engagement in higher education: A synthesis of literature and assessment tools. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 12(2), 1−14.

Markos, S. & Sridevi, M. S. (2010). Employee engagement: The key to improving performance. International Journal of Business and Management, 5(12), 89−96.

Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397–422, http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev. psych.52.1.397

Melcrum Publishing. (2005). Employee engagement: How to build a high-performance workforce. An independent Melcrum Research Report Executive Summary.

Metz, M. H. (1988). Field study on teachers’ engagement project on the effects of the school as a workplace on teachers’ engagement - Phase one (Report No. Descriptive 141). Retrieved from National Center on Effective Secondary Schools, Madison, WI. https://files.eric.ed.gov/ fulltext/ED298103.pdf

Meyers, L.S., Gamst, G., & Guarino, A.J. (2006). Applied multivariate research: Design and interpretation. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Mitchel, R., Agle, B., & Wood, D. (1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle or who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22(4), 853–896.

Mlogo, I. (2017). Parents’ engagement in early childhood education and care: Enhancing child development and community well-being. SciFed Journal of Neuroscience, 1(1), 1−10.

Mojsa-Kaja, J., Golonka, K., & Marek, T. (2015). Job burnout and engagement among teachers – Work life areas and personality traits as predictors of relationships with work. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 28(1), 102−119. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.13075/ ijomeh.1896.00238

Monks, J. (2003). Patterns of giving to one’s alma mater among young graduates from selective institutions. Economics of Education Review, 22.

Montgomery, A., Spânu, F., Baban, A., Panagopoulou, E. (2015). Job demands, burnout, and engagement among nurses: A multi-level analysis of ORCAB data investigating the moderating effect of teamwork. Burnout Research, 2(2-3), 71–79. doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.burn.2015.06.001

Murdock, T. B. (1999). The social context of risk: Status and motivational predictors of alienation in middle school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 62-76.

Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. (2011). Parents survey questionnaire. Retrieved from https://www.udir.no/Upload/Brukerundersokelser/ Sporsmal/5/Foreldreundersokelsen_sporsmal_engelsk.pdf?epslanguage=- no

Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Pascarella, E. T., Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects student. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Peters, D. L. PE., & Lucietto, A. M. (2016). A survey of types of industry-academia collaboration. Paper presented at ASEE’s 123rd Annual Conference and Exposition. Retrieved from https://peer.asee.org/a-survey-of-types-of-industry-academia-collaboration.pdf

Peterson, C., Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1993). Learned helplessness: A theory for the age of personal control. New York: Oxford University Press.

Pomerantz, E. M., Moorman, E. A., & Litwack, S. D. (2007). The how, whom, and why of parents’ involvement in children’s academic lives: More is not always better. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 373−410. doi: https:// doi.org/10.3102/003465430305567

R. R. V. (2009). Student engagement: A necessity in an era of mass higher education. Paper presented at the 2nd International Conference of Teaching and Learning (ICTL 2009) INTI University College, Malaysia. Retrieved fromhttps://my.laureate.net/Faculty/docs/Faculty%20Documents/INTI%20 Conferences/Parallel%20Sessions%202/2E/2E-06-P74%20(Malaysia).pdf

Radcliffe, S. (2011). A study of alumni engagement and its relationship to giving behaviors (Master thesis). Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.bucknell. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1001&context=masters_theses

Rajber, M. A. & Oklahoma, N. (2001). An investigation of the relationship between teachers’ engagement in reflective practice and music teaching effectiveness (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://shareok.org/handle/11244/276

Roberts, J. L. (2007). The future of academic-industry collaboration. Hongkong: Polytechnic University, International Association of Societies of Design Research.

Robinson, D., Perryman, S., & Hayday, S. (2004). The Drivers of Employee Engagement Report 408. Institute for Employment Studies, UK.

Rosmiller, R. A. (1988). Project on the effects of the school as a workplace on teachers’ engagement: Field study on principals’ management of schools to affect teacher engagement. Report No. Evaluative/Feasibility 142. Retrieved from Wisconsin Center for Education Research, Madison https://files.eric. ed.gov/fulltext/ED316943.pdf Rasiah,

Saunders, L. (2006). Teachers’ engagement in and with research: supporting integrity and creativity in teaching. FORUM, 48(2), 3−19. doi:10.2304/forum.2006.48.2.131

Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2003). UWES – Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: Test manual. Utrecht: Utrecht University, Occupational Health Psychology Unit.

Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzales-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A 2 sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. J Happ Stud. 3(1), 71–92. Doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.1023/A:1015630930326

Sekelsky, M. J. (2017). Alumni and advancement: Agree on a definition of engagement. Retrieved from http://blog.alumniaccess.com/alumni_engagement_ definition_attraction_ connection_affection_influence

Shulman, L. S. (2005). Making differences: A table of learning. Change, 34(6), 36−44.

Sivananda, S. Sathyanarayana, V., & Pati, P. B. (2009). Industry-academia collaboration via internships. Paper presented at CSEET’09. 22nd Conference on Software Engineering Education and Training (pp. 255−262). Retrieved from http://dblp.org/db/conf/csee/csee2009

Skaalvik, E. M. & Skaalvik, S. (2013). Teachers’ perceptions of the school goal structure: Relations with teachers’ goal orientations, work engagement, and job satisfaction. International Journal of Educational Research, 62, 199–209.

Skinner, E. A. & Belmont, J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571−581.

Skinner, E. A. (1991). Development and perceived control: A dynamic model of action in context. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Development: Vol. 23. Self-processes in development (pp. 167-216). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Skinner, E. A., & Chi, U. (2012). Intrinsic motivation and engagement as “active ingredients” in garden-based education: Examining models and measures derived from self-determination theory. The Journal of Environmental Education, 43(1), 16–36.

Skinner, E. A., & Kindermann, T. A. (2009). A motivational perspective on engagement and disaffection conceptualization and assessment of children’s behavioral and emotional participation in academic activities in the classroom. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(3), 493−525.

Spann, S. J., Kohler, F. W., & Soenksen, D. (2003). Examining parents’ involvement in and perceptions of special education services: An interview with families in a parent support group. Focus on Autism and Other Development Disabilities, 18(4), 228−237. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576030180040401

Szumski, G., & Karwowski, M. (2017). Parents’ engagement in the education of lower secondary school students with and without special educational needs – which strategies bring expected results? Edukacja, 2(141), 63−77. doi: 10.24131/3724.170204

Thai, L. K. & Yasin, M. H. M. (2018). Parents’ engagement in mathematics learning among deaf child. Journal of ICSAR, 2(1), 2548−2600.

Thompson, A. C., McGraw, C., & Hair, S. (2015). Making it work: Gainful engineering education and recruitment through industry engagement. Paper Presented at the ASEE Southeast Section Conference. Retrieved from http:// se.asee.org/proceedings/ASEE2015 /papers2015/22.pdf

Timostsuk, I., & Jaanilab, S. (2015). Primary teachers´ instructional behavior as related to students’ engagement in science learning. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 197, 1597–1602.

UBC Alumni Association. (2011). What is alumni engagement? Retrieved fromhttp://www.alumni.ubc.ca/wp/wp-content/uploads/UBCAlumni AnnualReport_2010-11.pdf

Updegraff, A. K., McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., & Kupanoff, K. (2004). Parents’ involvement in adolescents’ peer relationships: A comparison of mothers’ and fathers’ roles. Journal of Marriage and Family Banner, 63(3), 655−668. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00655.x

Useem, E. L. (1992). Middle schools and math groups: Parents’ involvement in children’s placement. Sociology of Education, 65(4), 263−279. doi: 10.2307/2112770

Valencia, R. R., & Black, M. S. (2002). “Mexican Americans don’t value education!”—On the basis of myth, myth-making, and debunking. Journal of Latinos and Education, 1(2), 81–103.

Vallerand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 271-360). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Ward-Roof, J. A., Heaton, P. M., & Coburn, M. B. (2008). Capitalizing on parent and family partnerships through programming. In K. C. Carney-Hall (Ed.), New Directions for Student Services: No. 122. Managing parent partnerships: Maximizing influence, minimizing interference, and focusing on student success (pp. 43–55). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Engaged and disaffected action: The conceptualization and measurement of motivation in the academic domain (doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from University of Rochester, New York. http://psycnet.apa.org/ record/1993-72315-001.

Wilson, Gaff, J. G., Dienst, E. R., Wood, L., & Bavry, J.L. (1975). College professors and their impact on students. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Zarate, M. E. (2007). Understanding Latino parental involvement in education. Perceptions, expectations, and recommendations. Tomas Rivera Policy Institute. Retrieved from ´http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502065.pd
Published
2020-12-15
How to Cite
Hassan, D. A., Bashir, D. R., & Arshad, M. T. (2020). LEARNING ENGAGEMENT SCALE (LES): DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPOSITE MEASURE AND ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES FOR BUSINESS SCHOOLS. Journal of Business Strategies, 14(2), 38-68. Retrieved from http://greenwichjournals.com/index.php/businessstudies/article/view/497