GLASS CEILING EFFECT ON WOMEN CAREER PROGRESSION IN URBAN PAKISTAN
Keywords:
Stereotype, Work-Life Conflict, Glass Ceiling, Gender Discrimination, Developing EconomiesAbstract
Regardless of the notable increase in the women workforce worldwide, their advancement toward the senior managerial designations has remained limited. The obstruction for women to achieve senior-level positions due to gender discrimination is referred to the Glass Ceiling (GC) effect. Gender discrimination persists as a constant setback globally, but it has become an acute problem in developing countries. The key objective of this study is to investigate the glass ceiling effect on women career growth in urban Pakistan. Deductive approach is used to determine the variables which support the GC effect. A total of 150questionnaires were distributed using random sampling technique among the female employees of Karachi, out of which 100 responded. Data is analyzed using descriptive statistics with the help of SPSS. The study concluded that urban working women are drained with family responsibilities, workload and gender discrimination at work, which eventually results in inefficiency and a high degree of stress. Study findings reveal that the strongest predictor that hinder Women Career Progression (WCP) is Gender Stereotype (GS), followed by Organizational Practices (OP), and the Work-life Conflict (WLC). Based on the study findings it is recommended that the organizations in Pakistan should inculcate equality, encourage diversity in the senior management, offer the women workforce flexible-job arrangements and maternity leaves, and provide day care facilities to the children, to balance the women work-life conflicts.
References
Abrams, K. (1991). Social Construction, Roving Biologism, and
Reasonable Women: A Response to Professor Epstein. DePaul
Law Review, 41, 1021.
Agars, M. D. (2004). Reconsidering the impact of gender stereotypes on
the advancement of women in organizations. Psychology of
Women Quarterly, 28(2), 103-111.
Allport, G. W., Clark, K., & Pettigrew, T. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice.
Sydney: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Al-Manasra, E. A. (2013). What are the” Glass Ceiling” barriers effects on
women career progress in Jordan? International Journal of Business
and Management, 8(6), 40.https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n6p40
Arab Naz, M. H., Daraz, U., Khan, W., Khan, T., & Muhammad Salman,
M. (2013). A Paradigm Shift in Women’ s Movement and
Gender Reforms in Pakistan (A Historical Overview). Global
Journal of Human-Social Science Research.
Bailyn, L., & Harrington, M. (2004). Redesigning work for work–family
integration. Community, Work & Family, 7(2), 197-208.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1366880042000245470
Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., & Pulaski, C. A. (1990). Equal justice and
the death penalty: A legal and empirical analysis. Boston:
Northeastern University Press.
Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An
expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56(10), 781.
Barreto, M. E., Ryan, M. K., & Schmitt, M. T. (2009). The glass ceiling in the
21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality. American
Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/11863-000.
Bartolomé, F., & Evans, P. A. L. (1979). Professional lives versus private
lives-shifting patterns of managerial commitment. Organizational
Dynamics, 7(4), 3-29.
Bazazo, I., Nasseef, M. A., Mukattesh, B., Kastero, D., & Al-Hallaq, M.
(2017). Assessing the Glass Ceiling Effect for Women in Tourism
and Hospitality. Journal of Management and Strategy, 8(3), 51.
Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2018). Business research methods.
London: Oxford University Press.
Blank, R. M. (1996). Committee on the Status of Women in the Economics
Profession. American Economic Review, 86(2), 502-506.
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends,
and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865.
Blau, F. D., & Devaro, J. (2007). New Evidence on Gender Differences in Promotion
Rates: An Empirical Analysis of a Sample of New Hires. Industrial
Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 46(3), 511-550.
Bombuwela, P. M., & De Alwis, A. C. (2013). Effects of Glass Ceiling on
Women Career Development in Private Sector Organizations–
Case of Sri Lanka. Journal of Competitiveness, 5(2), 3-19.
Borrell, C., Artazcoz, L., Gil-González, D., Pérez, G., Rohlfs, I., & Pérez, K. (2010).
Perceived sexism as a health determinant in Spain. Journal of Women’s
Health (2002), 19(4), 741–750. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2009.1594
Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or
outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429-444.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00126
Brief, A. P., Dietz, J., Cohen, R. R., Pugh, S. D., & Vaslow, J. B. (2000).
Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority
as explanations for employment discrimination. Organizational
behavior and human decision processes, 81(1), 72-97.
Broverman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., &
Rosenkrantz, P. S. (1972). Sex-role stereotypes: A current
appraisal1. Journal of Social Issues, 28(2), 59-78.
Burgess, D., & Borgida, E. (1999). Who women are, who women should
be: Descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping in sex
discrimination. Psychology, public policy, and law, 5(3), 665.
Burke, R. J. (2002). Organizational values, job experiences and
satisfactions among managerial and professional women and
men: advantage men?. Women in Management Review, 17(5),
228-236. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420210433184
Caran, V. C. S., Secco, I. A. D. O., Barbosa, D. A., & Robazzi, M. L. D. C.
C. (2010). Moral harassment among professors in a public
university in Brazil. Acta Paulista de Enfermagem, 23(6), 737-744.
Cenek, J. (2013). Gender stereotypes in organizations. Journal of Education
Culture and Society, (1). https://doi:10.15503/jecs20131-30-37
Cikara, M., Lee, T. L., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2009). Ambivalent sexism
at home and at work: How attitudes toward women in
relationships foster exclusion in the public sphere. Social and
psychological bases of ideology and system justification, 444-462.
Clevenger, L., & Singh, N. (2013). Exploring barriers that lead to the glass
ceiling effect for women in the US hospitality industry. Journal
of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 12(4), 376-399.
Cole, P. M. (1997). Women in family business. Family Business Review, 10(4),
353-371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-6248.1997.00353.x
Cook, E. P. (1993). The gendered context of life: Implications for women’s and
men’s career-life plans. The Career Development Quarterly, 41(3),
227-237. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.1993.tb00373.x
Conference Board of Canada. (2000). Creating high-performance organizations:
Leveraging women’s leadership. Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada.
CPDI. (2017, March). Women and Living wages in Pakistan. Centre of Peace
and Development Initiatives. Retrieved from www.cpdi-pakistan.org
Dale, A., Jackson, N., & Hill, N. (2005). Women in non-traditional training
and employment. Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission.
D’Cruz, P., & Rayner, C. (2013). Bullying in the Indian workplace: A study of
the ITES-BPO sector. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 34(4),
597-619.https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X12452672
Dizaho, E., Dizaho, R., Salleh, A., & Abdullah, A. (2016). The Impact of
Work-Family Conflict on Working Mothers’ Career Development:
A Review of Literature, 1991–8178, 328-334.
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (2010). Prejudice,
stereotyping and discrimination: theoretical and empirical overview. The
SAGE handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination, 3-29.
Dovidio, J. F. (2001). On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third
wave. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 829-849.
Dunn, D., & Skaggs, S. (2006). Gender and paid work in industrial
nations. In Handbook of the Sociology of Gender (pp. 321-342).
Springer, Boston, MA.
Duxbury, L. E., & Higgins, C. (2012). 2012 National Study on Balancing Work
and Caregiving in Canada. Ottawa, Canada, Carleton University.
Eagly, A. H. (2013). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role
interpretation. Psychology Press.
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about
how women become leaders. Boston, MA, US: Harvard Business
School Press.
Elder, S., & Schmidt, D. (2004). Global Employment Trends for Women,
2004 (Geneva: International Labour Organisation).
Faizan, R., Nair, S. L. S., & Haque, A. U. (2018). The effectiveness of feminine
and masculine leadership styles in relation to contrasting gender’s
performances. Polish Journal of Management Studies, 17.
Farrington, K., & Chertok, E. (1993). Social conflict theories of the family. In
P. G. Boss, WJ Doherty, R. LaRossa, WR Schumm, & SK Steinmetz
(Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methods (pp. 357-381).
Springer, Boston, MA.
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. The
handbook of social psychology, 2, 357-411.
Fiske, A., Haslam, N., & Fiske, S. (1991). Confusing one person with
another: what errors reveal about the elementary forms of social
relations. - PubMed - NCBI. J Pers Soc Psycho, 60(5), 656-674.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring Sexual
Harassment: Theoretical and Psychometric Advances. Basic and
Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425-445.
Flanagan, J., & Green, R. (2013). The Impact of Stereotype Threat in
Manual Labor Settings on Hispanic and African American
Female Participants. Journal of Business and Economics, 5.
Garg, P. (2018). Impact of Work-Life Balance Practices on Employees
Retention and Organizational Performance – A Study on IT
Industry. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 6(8), 105-108.
Gavray, C. (2004). Chapter 7: Family and professional commitments: look
at the projects of young men and women at the end of their
schooling. In private and professional spheres (pp. 199-219).
From Boeck Superior.
Gibson, D., & Tulgan, B. (2002). Managing anger in the workplace.
Human Resource Development.
Glick, P., Fiske, S., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J., Abrams, D., Masser, B., and
López-López, W. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy:
Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775.
Glick, P., Diebold, J., Bailey-Werner, B., & Zhu, L. (1997). The two faces of
Adam: Ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(12), 1323–1334.
Goldenhar, L. M., Swanson, N. G., Hurrell, J. J., Jr., Ruder, A., & Deddens, J.
(1998). Stressors and adverse outcomes for female construction
workers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3(1), 19–32.
https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-8998.3.1.19
Gorman, E. H. (2005). Gender stereotypes, same-gender preferences, and
organizational variation in the hiring of women: Evidence from
law firms. American Sociological Review, 70(4), 702-728.
Hamdan, K., Hamdan, R., Batlouni, L., & Mansour, N. (2007). Women Entrepreneurs
in the MENA Region: Obstacles, Potentials & Future Prospects: The case
of Lebanon. https://doi.org/10.1142/9781783267347_0008
Hammer, L. B., Neal, M. B., Newsom, J. T., Brockwood, K. J., & Colton,
C. L. (2005). A longitudinal study of the effects of dual-earner
couples’ utilization of family-friendly workplace supports on
work and family outcomes. The Journal of Applied Psychology,
90(4), 799-810. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.799
Hawke, L. A. (2007). Gender roles within American marriage: Are they
really changing? Essai, 5(1), 23.
Heilman, M. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model.
Research in Organizational Behavior. Retrieved from
https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/ en/publications/sex-bias-in-worksettings-
the-lack-of-fit-model
Hejase, H. J. (2015). Sexual harassment in the workplace: An exploratory study
from Lebanon. Journal of Management Research, 7(1), 107-121.
Helgeson, V. (2016). Psychology of gender. Routledge.
Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., & Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual
review of psychology, 53(1), 575-604.
Hicks-Clarke, D., & Iles, P. (2000). Climate for diversity and its effects on career
and organisational attitudes and perceptions. Personnel Review - PERS
REV, 29, 324-345. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480010324689
Kakker, D. J., & Bhandhari, A. (2015). Perception of Women on Higher
Education: A Study of Glass Ceiling in Delhi. Pezzottaite
Journal, 4, 1430-1434.
Kilgour, M. A. (2013). The global compact and gender inequality: a work
in progress. Business & Society, 52(1), 105-134. https://doi.org/
10.1177/0007650312459918
Kossek, E. E., Lewis, S., & Hammer, L. B. (2010). Work–life initiatives
and organizational change: Overcoming mixed messages to move
from the margin to the mainstream. Human Relations; Studies
towards the Integration of the Social Sciences, 63(1), 3-19.
Kumari, V. (2014). Problems and challenges faced by urban working
women in India (Doctoral dissertation).
Lathabhavan, R., & Balasubramanian, S. A. (2017). Glass Ceiling and women
employees in Asian organizations: a tri-decadal review. Asia-Pacific
Journal of Business Administration, 9(3), 232-246.
Leech, N. L., Barrett, K. C., Morgan, G. A., Clay, J. N., & Quick, D.
(2005). Multiple regression. SPSS for Intermediate Statistics: use
and interpretation, 122-141.
Lemière, S., & Silvera, R. (2008). The different facets of pay inequalities
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (2012). Labour Force Survey 2012-13 (Annual
Report) (No. 31). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labourforce-
survey-2012-13-annual-report
Pakistan Employment Trends. (2013). Annual report of Pakistan Bureau
of Statistics. Government of Pakistan Statistics Division,
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved from www.pbs.gov.pk
Pakistan Statistical Year Book. (2012). Annual report of Pakistan Bureau of
Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/pakistanstatistical-
year-book-2012
Petersen, T., & Morgan, L. A. (2013). Separate and Unequal: Occupation-
Establishment Sex Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap. The
American Journal of Sociology, 101(2), 329-335.
Phelps, E. S. (1972). The statistical theory of racism and sexism. The
american economic review, 659-661.
Pinel, E. C., & Paulin, N. (2005). Stigma consciousness at work. Basic
and Applied Social Psychology, 27(4), 345-352. https://doi.org/
10.1207/s15324834basp2704_7
Pirzada, D. S., Hayat, F., Ikram, A. A., Ayub, M., & Waheed, K. (2013).
Impact of human resources management practices on turnover,
productivity and corporate financial performance. European
journal of business and management, 5(10), 163-176.
Pollard, P. L. (2007, December). A critical analysis of gender-based workplace
challenges facing women: gender and compensation. In Forum on Public
Policy: A Journal of the Oxford Round Table. Forum on Public Policy.
Rai, U. K., & Srivastava, M. (2010). Women executives and the glass
ceiling: Myths and mysteries from Razia Sultana to Hillary
Clinton, BUH Management Review, 1(2), 79-83.
Rantanen, J., Kinnunen, U., Mauno, S., & Tillemann, K. (2011).
Introducing theoretical approaches to work-life balance and
testing a new typology among professionals. In Creating
Balance? (pp. 27-46). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16199-5_2
Roberson, L., M. Galvin, B., & Cherise Charles, A. (2007). When group
identities matter: Bias in performance appraisal. The Academy of
Management Annals, 1, 617-650. https://doi.org/10.5465/078559818
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward
Female Authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(11),
1315-1328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200263001
Sandhu, N., Singh, D., & Batra, S. (2014). Corporate gender discrimination:
Analysis and evaluation. International Journal of Organizational
Behaviour & Management Perspectives, 3(4), 1250.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for
business students. Pearson education.
Schein, V. E. (2001). A global look at psychological barriers to women’s
progress in management. Journal of Social issues, 57(4), 675-688.
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An Integrated Process Model
of Stereotype Threat Effects on Performance. Psychological Review,
115(2), 336-356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336
Shabir, H., Shakeel, M. A., & Zubair, R. A. (2017). Gender stereotype,
glass ceiling and women’s career advancement: an empirical
study in service sector of Pakistan. City University Research
Journal, 236-246.
Spector, P., & Cohen-Charash, Y. (2001). The role of justice in organizations:
A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 86(2), 278-321. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2001.2958
Stamarski, C. S., & Hing, L. S. S. (2015). Gender inequalities in the
workplace: the effects of organizational structures, processes,
practices, and decision makers’ sexism. Frontiers in Psychology,
6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01400
Tajfel, H. (1969). Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Biosocial
Science, 1(S1), 173-191.
Tausig, M., & Fenwick, R. (2001). Unbinding time: Alternate work
schedules and work-life balance. Journal of family and economic
issues, 22(2), 101-119.
Thomas, L. T., & Ganster, D. C. (1995). Impact of family-supportive work
variables on work-family conflict and strain: A control
perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(1), 6-15.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.80.1.6
United Nations Statistical Division. (2010). The World’s Women, 2000:
Trends and Statistics (Vol. 16). United Nations Publications.
US Glass Ceiling Commission. (1995). A solid investment: Making full
use of the nation’s human capital, Final report of the
Commission. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Retrieved on September 10, 2007.
Varma, A. (2002). Globalizing People Through International Assignments.
Human Resource Management, 41(1), 144-144.
Virginia, S. (1990). Women in American Society: An Introduction to
Women’s Studies. California: Mayfield Publications.
Wilson, M., Gadbois, S., & Nichol, K. (2008). Is Gender Parity Imminent
in the Professoriate? Lessons from One Canadian University.
Canadian Journal of Education, 31(1), 211-228.
World Economic Forum. (2016). Global Gender Gap Report 2016. Retrieved
from http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/
Yousaf, R., & Schmiede, R. (2016). Underrepresentation of women at
academic excellence and position of power: role of harassment
and glass ceiling. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 4(2), 173-185.
Yukongdi, V., & Benson, J. (2005). Women in Asian management:
cracking the glass ceiling?. Asia Pacific Business Review, 11(2),
139-148.https://doi.org/10.1080/1360238042000291225
Reasonable Women: A Response to Professor Epstein. DePaul
Law Review, 41, 1021.
Agars, M. D. (2004). Reconsidering the impact of gender stereotypes on
the advancement of women in organizations. Psychology of
Women Quarterly, 28(2), 103-111.
Allport, G. W., Clark, K., & Pettigrew, T. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice.
Sydney: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Al-Manasra, E. A. (2013). What are the” Glass Ceiling” barriers effects on
women career progress in Jordan? International Journal of Business
and Management, 8(6), 40.https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n6p40
Arab Naz, M. H., Daraz, U., Khan, W., Khan, T., & Muhammad Salman,
M. (2013). A Paradigm Shift in Women’ s Movement and
Gender Reforms in Pakistan (A Historical Overview). Global
Journal of Human-Social Science Research.
Bailyn, L., & Harrington, M. (2004). Redesigning work for work–family
integration. Community, Work & Family, 7(2), 197-208.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1366880042000245470
Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., & Pulaski, C. A. (1990). Equal justice and
the death penalty: A legal and empirical analysis. Boston:
Northeastern University Press.
Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An
expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56(10), 781.
Barreto, M. E., Ryan, M. K., & Schmitt, M. T. (2009). The glass ceiling in the
21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality. American
Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/11863-000.
Bartolomé, F., & Evans, P. A. L. (1979). Professional lives versus private
lives-shifting patterns of managerial commitment. Organizational
Dynamics, 7(4), 3-29.
Bazazo, I., Nasseef, M. A., Mukattesh, B., Kastero, D., & Al-Hallaq, M.
(2017). Assessing the Glass Ceiling Effect for Women in Tourism
and Hospitality. Journal of Management and Strategy, 8(3), 51.
Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2018). Business research methods.
London: Oxford University Press.
Blank, R. M. (1996). Committee on the Status of Women in the Economics
Profession. American Economic Review, 86(2), 502-506.
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends,
and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865.
Blau, F. D., & Devaro, J. (2007). New Evidence on Gender Differences in Promotion
Rates: An Empirical Analysis of a Sample of New Hires. Industrial
Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 46(3), 511-550.
Bombuwela, P. M., & De Alwis, A. C. (2013). Effects of Glass Ceiling on
Women Career Development in Private Sector Organizations–
Case of Sri Lanka. Journal of Competitiveness, 5(2), 3-19.
Borrell, C., Artazcoz, L., Gil-González, D., Pérez, G., Rohlfs, I., & Pérez, K. (2010).
Perceived sexism as a health determinant in Spain. Journal of Women’s
Health (2002), 19(4), 741–750. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2009.1594
Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or
outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429-444.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00126
Brief, A. P., Dietz, J., Cohen, R. R., Pugh, S. D., & Vaslow, J. B. (2000).
Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority
as explanations for employment discrimination. Organizational
behavior and human decision processes, 81(1), 72-97.
Broverman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., &
Rosenkrantz, P. S. (1972). Sex-role stereotypes: A current
appraisal1. Journal of Social Issues, 28(2), 59-78.
Burgess, D., & Borgida, E. (1999). Who women are, who women should
be: Descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping in sex
discrimination. Psychology, public policy, and law, 5(3), 665.
Burke, R. J. (2002). Organizational values, job experiences and
satisfactions among managerial and professional women and
men: advantage men?. Women in Management Review, 17(5),
228-236. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420210433184
Caran, V. C. S., Secco, I. A. D. O., Barbosa, D. A., & Robazzi, M. L. D. C.
C. (2010). Moral harassment among professors in a public
university in Brazil. Acta Paulista de Enfermagem, 23(6), 737-744.
Cenek, J. (2013). Gender stereotypes in organizations. Journal of Education
Culture and Society, (1). https://doi:10.15503/jecs20131-30-37
Cikara, M., Lee, T. L., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2009). Ambivalent sexism
at home and at work: How attitudes toward women in
relationships foster exclusion in the public sphere. Social and
psychological bases of ideology and system justification, 444-462.
Clevenger, L., & Singh, N. (2013). Exploring barriers that lead to the glass
ceiling effect for women in the US hospitality industry. Journal
of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 12(4), 376-399.
Cole, P. M. (1997). Women in family business. Family Business Review, 10(4),
353-371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-6248.1997.00353.x
Cook, E. P. (1993). The gendered context of life: Implications for women’s and
men’s career-life plans. The Career Development Quarterly, 41(3),
227-237. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.1993.tb00373.x
Conference Board of Canada. (2000). Creating high-performance organizations:
Leveraging women’s leadership. Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada.
CPDI. (2017, March). Women and Living wages in Pakistan. Centre of Peace
and Development Initiatives. Retrieved from www.cpdi-pakistan.org
Dale, A., Jackson, N., & Hill, N. (2005). Women in non-traditional training
and employment. Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission.
D’Cruz, P., & Rayner, C. (2013). Bullying in the Indian workplace: A study of
the ITES-BPO sector. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 34(4),
597-619.https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X12452672
Dizaho, E., Dizaho, R., Salleh, A., & Abdullah, A. (2016). The Impact of
Work-Family Conflict on Working Mothers’ Career Development:
A Review of Literature, 1991–8178, 328-334.
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (2010). Prejudice,
stereotyping and discrimination: theoretical and empirical overview. The
SAGE handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination, 3-29.
Dovidio, J. F. (2001). On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third
wave. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 829-849.
Dunn, D., & Skaggs, S. (2006). Gender and paid work in industrial
nations. In Handbook of the Sociology of Gender (pp. 321-342).
Springer, Boston, MA.
Duxbury, L. E., & Higgins, C. (2012). 2012 National Study on Balancing Work
and Caregiving in Canada. Ottawa, Canada, Carleton University.
Eagly, A. H. (2013). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role
interpretation. Psychology Press.
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about
how women become leaders. Boston, MA, US: Harvard Business
School Press.
Elder, S., & Schmidt, D. (2004). Global Employment Trends for Women,
2004 (Geneva: International Labour Organisation).
Faizan, R., Nair, S. L. S., & Haque, A. U. (2018). The effectiveness of feminine
and masculine leadership styles in relation to contrasting gender’s
performances. Polish Journal of Management Studies, 17.
Farrington, K., & Chertok, E. (1993). Social conflict theories of the family. In
P. G. Boss, WJ Doherty, R. LaRossa, WR Schumm, & SK Steinmetz
(Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methods (pp. 357-381).
Springer, Boston, MA.
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. The
handbook of social psychology, 2, 357-411.
Fiske, A., Haslam, N., & Fiske, S. (1991). Confusing one person with
another: what errors reveal about the elementary forms of social
relations. - PubMed - NCBI. J Pers Soc Psycho, 60(5), 656-674.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring Sexual
Harassment: Theoretical and Psychometric Advances. Basic and
Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425-445.
Flanagan, J., & Green, R. (2013). The Impact of Stereotype Threat in
Manual Labor Settings on Hispanic and African American
Female Participants. Journal of Business and Economics, 5.
Garg, P. (2018). Impact of Work-Life Balance Practices on Employees
Retention and Organizational Performance – A Study on IT
Industry. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 6(8), 105-108.
Gavray, C. (2004). Chapter 7: Family and professional commitments: look
at the projects of young men and women at the end of their
schooling. In private and professional spheres (pp. 199-219).
From Boeck Superior.
Gibson, D., & Tulgan, B. (2002). Managing anger in the workplace.
Human Resource Development.
Glick, P., Fiske, S., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J., Abrams, D., Masser, B., and
López-López, W. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy:
Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775.
Glick, P., Diebold, J., Bailey-Werner, B., & Zhu, L. (1997). The two faces of
Adam: Ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(12), 1323–1334.
Goldenhar, L. M., Swanson, N. G., Hurrell, J. J., Jr., Ruder, A., & Deddens, J.
(1998). Stressors and adverse outcomes for female construction
workers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3(1), 19–32.
https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-8998.3.1.19
Gorman, E. H. (2005). Gender stereotypes, same-gender preferences, and
organizational variation in the hiring of women: Evidence from
law firms. American Sociological Review, 70(4), 702-728.
Hamdan, K., Hamdan, R., Batlouni, L., & Mansour, N. (2007). Women Entrepreneurs
in the MENA Region: Obstacles, Potentials & Future Prospects: The case
of Lebanon. https://doi.org/10.1142/9781783267347_0008
Hammer, L. B., Neal, M. B., Newsom, J. T., Brockwood, K. J., & Colton,
C. L. (2005). A longitudinal study of the effects of dual-earner
couples’ utilization of family-friendly workplace supports on
work and family outcomes. The Journal of Applied Psychology,
90(4), 799-810. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.799
Hawke, L. A. (2007). Gender roles within American marriage: Are they
really changing? Essai, 5(1), 23.
Heilman, M. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model.
Research in Organizational Behavior. Retrieved from
https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/ en/publications/sex-bias-in-worksettings-
the-lack-of-fit-model
Hejase, H. J. (2015). Sexual harassment in the workplace: An exploratory study
from Lebanon. Journal of Management Research, 7(1), 107-121.
Helgeson, V. (2016). Psychology of gender. Routledge.
Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., & Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual
review of psychology, 53(1), 575-604.
Hicks-Clarke, D., & Iles, P. (2000). Climate for diversity and its effects on career
and organisational attitudes and perceptions. Personnel Review - PERS
REV, 29, 324-345. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480010324689
Kakker, D. J., & Bhandhari, A. (2015). Perception of Women on Higher
Education: A Study of Glass Ceiling in Delhi. Pezzottaite
Journal, 4, 1430-1434.
Kilgour, M. A. (2013). The global compact and gender inequality: a work
in progress. Business & Society, 52(1), 105-134. https://doi.org/
10.1177/0007650312459918
Kossek, E. E., Lewis, S., & Hammer, L. B. (2010). Work–life initiatives
and organizational change: Overcoming mixed messages to move
from the margin to the mainstream. Human Relations; Studies
towards the Integration of the Social Sciences, 63(1), 3-19.
Kumari, V. (2014). Problems and challenges faced by urban working
women in India (Doctoral dissertation).
Lathabhavan, R., & Balasubramanian, S. A. (2017). Glass Ceiling and women
employees in Asian organizations: a tri-decadal review. Asia-Pacific
Journal of Business Administration, 9(3), 232-246.
Leech, N. L., Barrett, K. C., Morgan, G. A., Clay, J. N., & Quick, D.
(2005). Multiple regression. SPSS for Intermediate Statistics: use
and interpretation, 122-141.
Lemière, S., & Silvera, R. (2008). The different facets of pay inequalities
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (2012). Labour Force Survey 2012-13 (Annual
Report) (No. 31). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labourforce-
survey-2012-13-annual-report
Pakistan Employment Trends. (2013). Annual report of Pakistan Bureau
of Statistics. Government of Pakistan Statistics Division,
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved from www.pbs.gov.pk
Pakistan Statistical Year Book. (2012). Annual report of Pakistan Bureau of
Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/pakistanstatistical-
year-book-2012
Petersen, T., & Morgan, L. A. (2013). Separate and Unequal: Occupation-
Establishment Sex Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap. The
American Journal of Sociology, 101(2), 329-335.
Phelps, E. S. (1972). The statistical theory of racism and sexism. The
american economic review, 659-661.
Pinel, E. C., & Paulin, N. (2005). Stigma consciousness at work. Basic
and Applied Social Psychology, 27(4), 345-352. https://doi.org/
10.1207/s15324834basp2704_7
Pirzada, D. S., Hayat, F., Ikram, A. A., Ayub, M., & Waheed, K. (2013).
Impact of human resources management practices on turnover,
productivity and corporate financial performance. European
journal of business and management, 5(10), 163-176.
Pollard, P. L. (2007, December). A critical analysis of gender-based workplace
challenges facing women: gender and compensation. In Forum on Public
Policy: A Journal of the Oxford Round Table. Forum on Public Policy.
Rai, U. K., & Srivastava, M. (2010). Women executives and the glass
ceiling: Myths and mysteries from Razia Sultana to Hillary
Clinton, BUH Management Review, 1(2), 79-83.
Rantanen, J., Kinnunen, U., Mauno, S., & Tillemann, K. (2011).
Introducing theoretical approaches to work-life balance and
testing a new typology among professionals. In Creating
Balance? (pp. 27-46). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16199-5_2
Roberson, L., M. Galvin, B., & Cherise Charles, A. (2007). When group
identities matter: Bias in performance appraisal. The Academy of
Management Annals, 1, 617-650. https://doi.org/10.5465/078559818
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward
Female Authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(11),
1315-1328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200263001
Sandhu, N., Singh, D., & Batra, S. (2014). Corporate gender discrimination:
Analysis and evaluation. International Journal of Organizational
Behaviour & Management Perspectives, 3(4), 1250.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for
business students. Pearson education.
Schein, V. E. (2001). A global look at psychological barriers to women’s
progress in management. Journal of Social issues, 57(4), 675-688.
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An Integrated Process Model
of Stereotype Threat Effects on Performance. Psychological Review,
115(2), 336-356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336
Shabir, H., Shakeel, M. A., & Zubair, R. A. (2017). Gender stereotype,
glass ceiling and women’s career advancement: an empirical
study in service sector of Pakistan. City University Research
Journal, 236-246.
Spector, P., & Cohen-Charash, Y. (2001). The role of justice in organizations:
A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 86(2), 278-321. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2001.2958
Stamarski, C. S., & Hing, L. S. S. (2015). Gender inequalities in the
workplace: the effects of organizational structures, processes,
practices, and decision makers’ sexism. Frontiers in Psychology,
6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01400
Tajfel, H. (1969). Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Biosocial
Science, 1(S1), 173-191.
Tausig, M., & Fenwick, R. (2001). Unbinding time: Alternate work
schedules and work-life balance. Journal of family and economic
issues, 22(2), 101-119.
Thomas, L. T., & Ganster, D. C. (1995). Impact of family-supportive work
variables on work-family conflict and strain: A control
perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(1), 6-15.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.80.1.6
United Nations Statistical Division. (2010). The World’s Women, 2000:
Trends and Statistics (Vol. 16). United Nations Publications.
US Glass Ceiling Commission. (1995). A solid investment: Making full
use of the nation’s human capital, Final report of the
Commission. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Retrieved on September 10, 2007.
Varma, A. (2002). Globalizing People Through International Assignments.
Human Resource Management, 41(1), 144-144.
Virginia, S. (1990). Women in American Society: An Introduction to
Women’s Studies. California: Mayfield Publications.
Wilson, M., Gadbois, S., & Nichol, K. (2008). Is Gender Parity Imminent
in the Professoriate? Lessons from One Canadian University.
Canadian Journal of Education, 31(1), 211-228.
World Economic Forum. (2016). Global Gender Gap Report 2016. Retrieved
from http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/
Yousaf, R., & Schmiede, R. (2016). Underrepresentation of women at
academic excellence and position of power: role of harassment
and glass ceiling. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 4(2), 173-185.
Yukongdi, V., & Benson, J. (2005). Women in Asian management:
cracking the glass ceiling?. Asia Pacific Business Review, 11(2),
139-148.https://doi.org/10.1080/1360238042000291225
Downloads
Published
2018-12-15
How to Cite
Imtiaz, R., Shaikh, S., & ul Ain, S. Q. (2018). GLASS CEILING EFFECT ON WOMEN CAREER PROGRESSION IN URBAN PAKISTAN. Journal of Business Strategies, 12(2), 17–42. Retrieved from https://greenwichjournals.com/index.php/businessstudies/article/view/340
Issue
Section
Articles
